However, they were still expected to remain loyal to their master and serve his household. [199] Architecture was the most significant form of Mamluk patronage and numerous artistic objects were commissioned to furnish Mamluk religious buildings, such as glass lamps, Qur'an manuscripts, brass candlesticks, and wooden minbars. By then, mamluk solidarity and loyalty to the emirs had dissipated. [27] The Bahriyya were named after the Arabic word bahr, meaning "sea" or "large river", because their barracks was located on the Nile River island of Rawda. Instead, many entered into mercantile, scholastic or other civilian careers. [98], Faraj was toppled in 1412 by the Syria-based emirs, Tanam, Jakam, Nawruz and al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh, who Faraj sent a total of seven military expeditions against during his reign. [152] Despite the electoral nature of accession, dynastic succession was nonetheless a reality at times,[74] particularly during the Bahri regime, where Baybars' sons Barakah and Solamish succeeded him, before Qalawun usurped the throne and was thereafter succeeded by four generations of direct descendants, with occasional interruptions. [117], A wide range of Islamic religious expression existed in Egypt during the early Mamluk era, namely Sunni Islam and its major madhabs (schools of thought) and various Sufi orders, but also small communities of Ismai'li Shia Muslims,[118] particularly in Upper Egypt. [67] An-Nasir Muhammad went further in imposing his rule by intervening to have al-Wathiq succeed Caliph al-Mustakfi, as well as compelling the qadi to issue legal rulings that advanced his interests. Although he was assassinated years later, the precedent of a Mamluk rule was evident to all. The main source of popular hostility was resentment at the privileged positions many Christians held in the Mamluk bureaucracy. [129] As a result of popular pressure, Coptic Christians had their employment in the bureaucracy terminated at least nine times between the late 13th and mid-15th centuries, and on one occasion, in 1301, the government ordered the closure of all churches. Warring continued between the Mamluks and Mongols, with the Mamluks consistently defeating the Central Asian invaders. "In the middle of the thirteenth century the power of the Turkish Mamluks in Cairo was supreme and a new regime emerged, the Mamluk Sultanate, which ruled Egypt and Syria until 1517. The Ilkhanate licked their wounds and returned the same year, only to be defeated again at the First Battle of Homs. [39] Qutuz sent military reinforcements to his erstwhile enemy an-Nasir Yusuf in Syria, and reconciled with the Bahriyyah, including Baybars, who was allowed to return to Egypt, to face the common Mongol threat. Trade continued nonetheless and despite papal restrictions on trade with the Muslims during the Crusades. Mamluk-period Qur'ans were richly illuminated and exhibit stylistic similarities with those produced under the contemporary Ilkhanids in Iran. [101] The first expedition involved the sacking of Edessa and the massacre of its Muslim inhabitants in retaliation for the Aq Qoyonlu's raids against the Mamluks' Mesopotamian territories. [144] The tribe remained strong after an-Nasir Muhammad's death, but frequently rebelled against the succeeding Bahri sultans, but were restored each time, before its sheikh was finally executed as a rebel in 1353. [78] By January 1342, however, Qawsun and Kujuk were toppled, and the latter's half-brother, an-Nasir Ahmad of al-Karak, was declared sultan. [145] The Bedouin were ultimately purged from Upper and Lower Egypt by the campaigns of Emir Shaykhu in 1353. [131] The 14th century saw a large wave of Coptic conversions to Islam[131] as a result of the intermittent persecution and destruction of the churches[129] and forced conversion to Islam. [64], Qalawun was the last Salihi sultan and following his death in 1290, his son, al-Ashraf Khalil, drew his legitimacy as a Mamluk by emphasizing his lineage from Qalawun, thus inaugurating the Qalawuni period of Bahri rule. The Mamluk Sultanate fell to the Ottomans in 1517. [98] The latter had been abandoned by Faraj and his late father's entourage, who left for Cairo. [113] While the Mamluk elite was ethnically diverse, those who were not Turkic in origin were Turkicized nonetheless. [35] While al-Mansur Ali was sultan, the strongman in Egypt was Aybak's former close aide, Sayf ad-Din Qutuz,[37] who also had hostile relations with the Salihiyyah, including the Bahri mamluks. Source: RomanDeckert, CC-BY-SA-4.0, Wikimedia Commons. [193] In the late 15th and early 16th centuries the Portuguese Empire's expansion into Africa and Asia began to significantly decrease the revenues of the Mamluk-Venetian monopoly on the trans-Mediterranean trade. In May 1285, he captured the Marqab fortress and garrisoned it. [212][213] Domes also transitioned from wooden or brick structures, sometimes of bulbous shape, to pointed stone domes with complex geometric or arabesque motifs carved into their outer surfaces. [84] The emirs Shaykhu and Sirghitmish deposed Salih and restored Hasan in a coup in 1355, after which Hasan gradually purged Taz, Shaykhu and Sirghitmish and their mamluks from his administration. [146], The Mamluks did not significantly alter the administrative, legal and economic systems that they inherited from the Ayyubid state. [37] The Bahriyyah subsequently raided areas around Syria, threatening an-Nasir Yusuf's power in Damascus. The Dar Al-Islam was on its heels, the Islamic Golden Age at its end. [99] During his reign, Shaykh reestablished the state's fiscal administration to replenish the treasury. [126] The authority of the former extended to many of the everyday aspects of Christian and Jewish life and was not restricted to the religious practices of the two respective communities. It was ruled by a military caste of mamluks (manumitted slave soldiers) at the head of which was the sultan. Title Did the Mamluks Have an Environmental Sense? [46], Baybars attempted to institute dynastic rule by assigning his four-year-old son al-Said Barakah as co-sultan, thereby ending the Mamluk tradition of electing a leader, but this effort was ultimately unsuccessful, at least for his Zahirid household; successful rulership became highly dependent on Baybars' personal qualities[clarification needed]. [162] Following the Battle of Ain Jalut, Baybars restructured the army into three components: the Royal Mamluk regiment, the soldiers of the emirs, and the halqa (non-mamluk soldiers). Most of the surviving examples of carpets, by contrast, date from the end of the Mamluk period. [163], The Ayyubid army had lacked a clear and permanent hierarchical system and one of Baybars' early reforms was creating a military hierarchy. [196] Furthermore, in 1429, he ordered that the spice trade to Europe be conducted through Cairo before goods reached Alexandria, thus attempting to end the direct transportation of spices from the Red Sea to Alexandria. To appease him, al-Ghawri placed in confinement the Venetian merchants then in Syria and Egypt, but after a year released them. na'ib as-saltana). Credit Agricole Egypt. The Mamluk Sultanate ruled Egypt, Syria and the Arabian hinterland along the Red Sea. [100] Tatar died three months into his reign and was succeeded by Barsbay, another Circassian emir of Barquq, in 1422. [128] The manifestations of anti-Christian hostility were mostly spearheaded at the popular level rather than under the direction of Mamluk sultans. [45], With Bahri power in Egypt and Muslim Syria consolidated by 1265, Baybars launched expeditions against the Crusader fortresses throughout Syria, capturing Arsuf in 1265, and Halba and Arqa in 1266. [199], Patronage varied over time, but the two high points of the arts were the reigns of al-Nasir Muhammad and of Qaytbay. 4. [169] The ustadar was often referred to as the ustadar al-aliyah (grand master of the house) to distinguish from ustadar saghirs (lesser majordomos) whose authority was subordinate to the ustadar al-aliyah and who oversaw specific aspects of the court and citadel, such as the sultan's treasury, private property and the kitchens of the citadel. A variant thereof (al-Dawla al-Turkiyya al-Jarakisiyya) emphasized the fact that the Circassians were Turkic-speaking.[10]. [166] Baybars also began biweekly inspections of the troops to verify that sultanic orders were carried out, in addition to the periodic inspections in which he would distribute new weaponry to the mamluk troops. 2016 by Bethany J. Walker, Sofia Laparidou, Annette Hansen, and Chiara Corbino. Amid conditions that stemmed the flow of mamluks from the Mongol-held lands to the sultanate, an-Nasir Muhammad resolved to make up for the loss of the purged mamluks by adopting new methods of training and military and financial advancement that introduced a great level of permissiveness. [19] The situation was calmed after the intervention of the atabeg al-askar (commander of the military), Fakhr ad-Din ibn Shaykh al-Shuyukh. [217][218][219], State in Egypt, Hejaz and the Levant (12501517), Extent of the Mamluk Sultanate under Sultan, "The Cambridge History of Egypt", Volume 1, (1998) P. 250. [184], Mamluk Egypt was a major producer of textiles and a supplier of raw materials for Western Europe. [53], An-Nasir Muhammad died in 1341 and his rule was followed by a succession of his descendants to the throne in a period marked by political instability. In the 28 October battle of Homs, the Mamluks routed the Ilkhanids and confirmed Mamluk dominance in Syria. [69] A further Ilkhanid invasion in 1303 was repelled after the Ilkhanid defeat at the Battle of Marj al-Suffar in the plains south of Damascus. [13] Mamluks had formed a part of the state or military apparatus in Syria and Egypt since at least the 9th century, rising to become governing dynasties of Egypt and the Levant during the Tulunid and Ikhshidid periods. Source: Ro4444, CC-BY-SA-4.0, Wikimedia Commons. [153] The accession of blood relatives to the sultanate was often the result of the decision or indecision of senior Mamluk emirs or the will of the preceding sultan. [152] More often than not, the sons of sultans were elected by the senior emirs with the ultimate intention that they serve as convenient figureheads presiding over an oligarchy of the emirs. iii DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108557382 Publisher: Cambridge University Press Print publication year: 2022 Access options [37] Qutuz deposed al-Mansur Ali in 1259. [190] Early into their rule, the Mamluks sought to expand their role in foreign trade, and to this end Baybars signed a commercial treaty with Genoa, while Qalawun signed a similar agreement with Ceylon. [18] Despite his close relationship with his mamluks, tensions existed between as-Salih and the Salihiyyah, and a number of Salihi mamluks were imprisoned or exiled throughout as-Salih's reign. Slave-soldiers who served the Islamic dynasties during the Medieval Era; meaning "one who is owned". [107] Two Ottoman era Mamluks, Iwaz Bey's Mamluk Yusuf Bey al-Jazzar and Jazzar Pasha were known for massacring Bedouins and given the name "butcher" (al-Jazzar) for it. Crime and Punishment in Industrial Britain, Advantages of North and South in Civil War, African Americans in the Revolutionary War, Civil War Military Strategies of North and South, Environmental Effects of The Columbian Exchange, Native Americans in the Revolutionary War. Who was the founder of the Mamluk Dynasty? The Mamluk Sultanate ruled Egypt, Syria and the Arabian hinterland along the Red Sea. At around the same time, Baybars' forces captured Safad from the Knights Templar, and shortly after, Ramla, both cities in interior Palestine. [28][33] The purge led to a dearth of military support for Aybak, which in turn led to Aybak's recruitment of new supporters from among the army in Egypt and the Turkic Nasiri and Azizi mamluks from Syria, who had defected from their Ayyubid masters, namely an-Nasir Yusuf, and moved to Egypt in 1250. In the Persian culture, succeeding Indo-Muslim monarchs built a "centralized organization" whose mission was to mobilize human and physical resources for the battles. [33] The Syrian mamluks were led by their patron Jamal ad-Din Aydughdi and were assigned most of the iqta of Aktay and his allies. [138], Bedouin tribes served as a reserve force in the Mamluk military. Art depicting the Mamluk Massacre of 1811. True or False: The Mamluks were massacred by the Ottoman Empire in 1517, effectively ending their existence. Muhammed Ali temporarily aligned himself with the Mamluks, inviting them to a grand celebration at the Citadel in Cairo. The Mamlk sultanate was originally established in Egypt but soon came to control Palestine and Syria. Their decoration consists almost entirely of Arabic calligraphy, with the thuluth script prominently used. The mamluk was an "owned slave", distinguished from the ghulam, or household slave. [19], Tensions between as-Salih Ayyub and his mamluks came to a head later in 1249 when Louis IX of France's forces captured Damietta in their bid to conquer Egypt during the Seventh Crusade. In doing so, Petry reveals how the Mamluk Sultanate can be regarded as a significant experiment in the history of state-building within the pre-modern . [207] Patrons, including sultans and high-ranking emirs, typically set out to build mausoleums for themselves but attached to them various charitable structures such as madrasas, khanqahs, sabils, or mosques. [126][127] The association of Christians with the Mongols, due to the latter's use of Armenian and Georgian Christian auxiliaries, the attempted alliance between the Mongols and the Crusader powers, and the massacre of Muslim communities and the sparing of Christians in cities captured by the Mongols, may have contributed to rising anti-Christian sentiments in the Mamluk era. [45], Another major component to Baybar's rule was intrastate communication. [76] Unable to meet the military's need for new mamluks, the sultans often resorted to turning Ilkhanid deserters or prisoners of war into soldiers, sometimes while the war the prisoners were captured in was still ongoing. 1. [110], Although Arabic was used as the administrative language of the sultanate, a variety of Kipchak Turkic, namely the Mamluk-Kipchak language was the spoken language of the Mamluk ruling elite. The Mamluks arrived in Egypt largely from the Turkic tribes of Central Asia and the Caucuses. [62] The dtente also saw a shift in Qalawun's building activities to focus on more secular and personal purposes, including a large, multi-division hospital complex in Cairo across from the tomb of as-Salih Ayyub. [57] However, the latter's ineptness precipitated a power struggle that ended with Qalawun being elected sultan in November 1279. Commercial International Bank (CIB) Industrial Development Bank of Egypt. [71] Concurrent with an-Nasir Muhammad's reign was the disintegration of the Ilkhanate into several smaller dynastic states and the consequent Mamluk effort to establish diplomatic and commercial relationships with the new political entities. In 1263, Baybars deposed al-Mughith of al-Karak based on allegations of collaborating with the Mongol Ilkhanate of Persia, and thus consolidated his authority over Muslim Syria. Caliphs, on the other hand, played a more spiritually significant role. Mamluks Mamluks Islamic Medicine John Hunter Louis Pasteur Germ Theory Lung Cancer Mass Vaccination Medicine on the Western Front Medieval Surgery Modern Medicine Public Health Acts Public Health in Early Modern Britain The Black Death The Pharmaceutical Industry Theory of the Four Humours Welfare Reforms Spread of Islam Abd al-Malik Abu Bakr [132][133][134][135] Others may have converted in order to retain employment. The desert environment of the Mamluks was given life by the waters of the Nile River, the Mediterranean Sea to the north, and the Red Sea to the Southeast. [101] The latter had grown wealthy from their burgeoning trade with central Africa and achieved a degree of local popularity due to their piety, education and generally benign treatment of the inhabitants.[101]. [123] The Shadhiliyyah lacked an institutional structure and was flexible in its religious thought, allowing it to easily adapt to its local environment. The rumor, accentuated by the execution of civilian notables who evacuated Damietta, provoked a mutiny by the garrison of his camp in al-Mansurah, which included numerous Salihi mamluks. Imported luxury goods from the east sometimes influenced local artistic vocabularies, as exemplified by the incorporation of Chinese motifs into both objects and architecture. [65] Early into an-Nasir Muhammad's second reign, the Ilkhanids, whose leader, Mahmud Ghazan, had converted to Islam, invaded Syria and routed a Mamluk army near Homs in the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar in 1299. One of the Mamluk Sultanate's first tests and most significant accomplishments would be against the mighty Mongol Empire. Sell on Amazon Other Sellers on Amazon Added Not added Add to Cart View Cart $31.81 & FREE Shipping Sold by: Book Depository US Sold by: Book Depository US (948804 ratings) 91% positive over last 12 months In stock. [181] The rawk surveys organized the iqta system and the first rawk was carried out in 1298 under Sultan Lajin. [157] Another prerogative, at least of the early Bahri sultans, was to import as many mamluks as possible into the sultanate, preferring those who originated from the territories of the Mongols. [185] The state's role in Syro-Palestinian agriculture was restricted to the fiscal administration and to the irrigation networks and other aspects of rural infrastructure. These mamluks were called the "Salihiyyah" (singular "Salihi") after their master. In 1323, the two parties signed a peace treaty. Their presence has had an influence and an impact on the people and customs. [98] The emirs could not usurp the throne themselves, however, and had Caliph al-Musta'in installed; the caliph had the support of the non-Circassian mamluks and legitimacy with the local population. On January 25, the Mamluk Sultanate collapsed. [46] The new force was rigidly disciplined and highly trained in horsemanship, swordsmanship and archery. [15] Sultan as-Salih Ayyub (r.12401249), the last of the Ayyubid sultans, had acquired some 1 000 mamluks (some of them free-born) from Syria, Egypt and the Arabian Peninsula by 1229, while serving as na'ib (viceroy) of Egypt during the absence of his father, Sultan al-Kamil (r.12181238). What better characterizes Mamluk-era urban architecture? The Abbasid Caliphate, for example, was ruled by caliphs, descendants of Muhammed, while the Mamluk Sultanate was ruled by non-descendant rulers: sultans. Lessing Archives. [186] Although the level of centralization was not as high as in Egypt, the Mamluks did impose enough control over the Syrian economy to derive revenues from Syria that benefited the sultanate and contributed to the defense of its realm. [17], As-Salih became sultan of Egypt in 1240, and, upon his accession to the Ayyubid throne, he manumitted and promoted large numbers of his original and newly recruited Mamluks on the condition that they remain in his service. Baybars ended the Ayyubid and early Mamluk tradition of selecting a Shafi'i scholar as qadi al-qudah (chief judge) and instead had a qadi al-qudah appointed from each of the four madhabs. [47] According to historian Thomas Asbridge, the methods used to capture Arsuf demonstrated the "Mamluks' grasp of siegecraft and their overwhelming numerical and technological supremacy". [165], Gradually, as mamluks increasingly filled administrative and courtier posts within the state, Mamluk innovations to the Ayyubid hierarchy were developed. [116] The sons of mamluks, known as the awlad al-nas, did not typically hold positions in the military elite and instead, were often part of the civilian administration or the Muslim religious establishment. How did the environment impact the Mamluk Sultanate? Shah Ismail I sent an embassy to Venice and Syria inviting them to join arms and recover the territory taken from them by the Ottoman Empire. In an attempt to dislodge Aybak, the Bahriyyah petitioned an-Nasir Yusuf to claim the Ayyubid throne and invade Egypt, but an-Nasir Yusuf initially refused. [55], In July 1277, Baybars died en route to Damascus, and was succeeded by Barakah. [93] Barquq entered into a brief engagement with Timur at the Euphrates in 1394, but Timur withdrew during that episode. [162] The Royal Mamluks, who were under the direct command of the sultan, were the highest-ranking body within the army, entry into which was exclusive.
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