Accessed [date you accessed the information]. The hydrogeology map shows a simplified version of the type and productivity of the main aquifers at a national scale (see the Hydrogeology Map resource page for more details). Your use of information provided by this website is at your own risk. Once biomass consumption was estimated, buffalo contributed the most to lion dietary intake (33%), followed by giraffe (20%), medium Bovidae (18%), and kudu (14%) and collectively accounting for 85% of the prey biomass consumed (Table 3). In Douala, studies have shown nitrate pollution (Wirmvem et al. More information is available in the report Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon (1988) (see References section, below). For females, buffalo were followed by kudu (16%), the class medium Bovidae (13%), giraffe (12%), zebra (9%) and elephant (8%), together accounting for 91% of the prey detected (Table 1). Contrastingly during wet seasons, pools of water are more available throughout the landscape and herbivore distributions more homogeneous and dispersed. The uppermost sandy layer is hydraulically connected with brackish waters in the Wouri estuary, and saline waters of the coastal wetlands. Lions were one of those species which were not spared from the curiosity of the world. This study revealed seasonal patterns in secondary prey consumption by female lions partly based on prey ecology with browsers, such as giraffe and kudu, mainly consumed in the early dry season, and grazers, such as zebra and suids, contributing more to female diet in the late dry season. Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon. Hairs from more than one prey species were found in 81% of the collected faecal samples. (I accept). : 19 192 m3/year, Per Capita in 2005 As in data were modified to ensure consistency with water resources data. In 1884 the territory of Cameroon was colonised by Germany, and after the First World War divided between France and the UK. PLOS ONE promises fair, rigorous peer review, In the Hwange ecosystem, lion habitat selection and movements are driven by waterholes [45] and lions appear to rotate their hunting behaviour between these different hunting grounds [46]. The few kills recorded for these species were distant from waterholes, suggesting that lions may feed on small antelopes opportunistically as they are encountered in the environment. Cameroon What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit? Here we investigate potential seasonality in the diet, prey preference and distribution of kills (i.e. WWF findings show that cholera and typhoid are amongst the top health challenges within communities near rivers due to inaccessibility to drinkable water. The lions of Botswana have the widest range of large prey species than anywhere else on the continent. Sights in Tsavo - Lonely Planet. Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority, Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe. The study was conducted between 2005 and 2007 in the northern sector of Hwange National Park (Hwange), north-western Zimbabwe, latitudes 1830 and 1950 S and longitudes 2545 and 2730 E. The study area covers c. 7554 km2 of dystrophic woodland savanna. The Black Umfolozi River is a good area to keep an eye out for cats, there is lots to eat around the water. Lake Chad Cameroon is a fascinating country with incredible biodiversity and natural riches. Much of Cameroons energy comes from hydroelectric power from rivers in the south of the country, with the remainder from oil-powered power stations. We assessed lion diet by combining carcass observations and faeces collection from GPS clusters, a method with recognized strengths [3], [4]. Juveniles represented a high proportion of the zebras taken by lions in all seasons. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055182, Editor: Matt Hayward, It is located in banakata. Nigeria, Chad, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo. More information is available in the report Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon (1988) (see References section, below). Some of the most mineralised groundwater is in volcanic aquifers, but the most mineralised are springs in the Mamf basin that are related to evaporites. This allows conversations they can hear for 100km further than normal. Some groundwater in deeper aquifers contains low oxygen and corresponding high iron and even hydrogen sulphate gas (Mafany and Fandong 2006). They pronk: bounce with all four feet alternatively on and off the ground, for what seems to be pure joy. Fish River Canyon Effect of diffuse recharge and wastewater on groundwater contamination in Douala, Cameroon. Further north, flows are continuous all year round, with only one peak flood (i.e., Sanaga and Wouri). Abstraction boreholes in the Hama Kossou, Babouri-Figuil and Mayo Oulo basins are typically between 120 and 180 m deep. Water Resources Management and Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Cameroon. The whole country suffered from droughts in 1981-87, 1991-1999, 2001-2005 . Dr Kirsty Upton and Brighid Dochartaigh, British Geological Survey, UK, Dr Imogen Bellwood-Howard, Institute of Development Studies, UK. United Nations Department of Technical Cooperation for Development and Economic Commission for Africa, Natural Resources/Water Series No. United Nations. There are a series of parallel faults running northeast/southwest, with displacements that can reach 1000 m, and associated with large volcanic massifs of various ages and compositions. The access rate to fresh water is still low and far from the millennium's goal target (43,9%); the rate of water sanitation and hygiene is worse (36%). Some urban centres widely use groundwater, including Douala. During this time game sightings were spectacular. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Recent advances in GPS technology has allowed non invasive carcass observations and faecal analysis to gain increasing knowledge on large mammalian carnivores diet [3], [4], and has also permitted to study the spatial distribution of kills providing important information for predator-prey relationships [5]. A number of agreements and cooperative activities exist between these countries (e.g Alker 2008). They typically form small, local aquifers, limited to areas where the rock has been fractured and weathered to increase its permeability. The frequency of occurrence of species in the faecal dataset was highest for kudu (24%) followed by buffalo and medium Bovidae (each representing 18%; the medium Bovidae class is dominated by sable and eland for faecal data), small antelopes (17%), and giraffe (7%) collectively contributing 84% of the species found in faecal samples (Table 2). Swakopmund, Pretoria Like the continent includes the islands of Cape Verde, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles, and thus! We thank Matt Hayward, Craig Tambling and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on a previous draft. We systematically searched for potential lion kill sites by identifying clusters of x:y location coordinates including 4 hours of sequential locations within a defined proximity (150 m), and these were then investigated on foot (see also [4], [24]). Map developed from USGS GTOPOPO30; GADM global administrative areas; and UN Revision of World Urbanization Prospects. Male lions showed a preference for medium Bovidae in the early dry and wet seasons, and for Suidae in the late dry and wet seasons (Fig. 2018. Cameroon is rich in national parks and wildlife reserves, including the Waza National Park in the north (which contains both forest and savanna animals), the Dja Faunal Reserve (a UNESCO World Heritage site), and the Campo Ma'an National Park in the southwest (which has elephants, hippos, leopards, and plenty of primates). Was established in 1996 and it is managed by the pvt. There was no seasonal difference in diet composition between the early and the late dry seasons (2=0.92, df=8, p=0.99). Indeed, it has become apparent in Southern Africa that male lions hunt successfully and quite often in the absence of female lions [25], [26]. Annual rainfall was 330 mm in 20042005, 683 mm in 20052006 and 703 mm in 20062007. 1). Conservation of the trees around this water source has helped to keep it flowing. Cameroon has a dense network of perennial rivers. If reproducing diagrams that include third party information, please cite both the Africa Groundwater Atlas and the third party sources. Given the propensity of kill investigations to be biased towards large prey, this is likely an underestimation and it should be considered that juvenile zebra are highly selected for by lions. The remaining species contributed less than 5% per species. Mafany GT and Fantong WY. Swakopmund, Namibia Jacobss indices (kill and faecal data) revealed that buffalo were preferred in all seasons (Fig. Composed mainly of Cretaceous marine sandstones and limestones, which are 1000 to 2000 m thick. There is a coastal plain that extends 15-150 km inland; the south Cameroon plateau that rises from the coastal plain to more than 600 m; the Cameroon chain of mountains, hills and plateaus that extends from Mount Cameroon on the coast (Cameroon's highest point at 4,095 m) almost to Lake Chad on the northern border; the Adamawa Plateau in the centre of the country, with an average elevation of 1,100 m; and a northern lowland region, which extends from the edge of the Adamawa Plateau to Lake Chad, with an elevation of around 300 m. The climate varies across the country, controlled by topography. Lion prey species found in faecal samples classified in 10 groups and their respective proportions relative to frequency of occurrence. In communities where neither springs nor stand taps are unavailable, the population drink from open streams that also serve for laundry and bathing. The rural population largely relies on groundwater for water supply, through springs, hand dug wells, and boreholes equipped with hand pumps (Ako Ako et al. 2017) and organic pollution (Sanou et al. Bold dashed lines indicate means. For more information see the climate resource page. Cameroon, a country located in Central Africa, is one of those places. Prey species proportional biomass contributing to lion diet, as detected from kills, faecal samples and observed hunts. Many studies have suggested two principal causes: (1) human activities such as poor farming practices,. Vernal pools are a type of wetlands - sometimes resembling larger puddles. In African semi-arid savannas, surface-water is a heterogeneously distributed, limiting resource which becomes scarcer as the dry season progresses. Groundwater quality in Cameroon and its vulnerability to pollution. Generally sodium-bicarbonate or iron/magnesium/calcium-bicarbonate type. Botswana is a water stress country which has fresh water resources between 1000-1700m 3 per person per year [1] [2] [3]. However, water quality in Cameroon has improved in the last decade. This suggested that surface-water resources form passive traps and contribute to the structuring of lion foraging behaviour. Call us to speak to an experienced safari planner. In Hwange, the vegetation is primarily woodland and bushland and open grassland areas are scarce but often associated with waterhole areas [49]. Responsibility for the construction and management of rural wells and boreholes has been transferred to communes (AMCOW 2011). This section provides a summary of the hydrogeology of the main aquifers in Cameroon. Zeke Davidson, An average of 300 people depend on the water source, says Njounan Tegomo Olivier, WWF Collaborative Management Officer. Thus the importance of buffalo as prey is despite dry season variations when nutrition and water deprivation weaken susceptible individuals (young and old). African elephants that have become accustomed to the relentless cycles of drought in Etosha and map its water sources in their memories. Per Capita in 2000 : 19 192 m 3 /year. Lake Chad Basin Aquifer - Cretaceous to Quaternary. The most frequently occurring prey species were buffalo for both sexes: 56% for males and 33% for females. The Gemsbok is a large African antelope with very long horns, sometimes used in defence against the Kalahari lions. Schoor Avenue, Bellville, Cape Some years back some boreholes were rehabilitated by either the local council or the community. Our entire household has been drinking from this source for many years. GWP (Global Water Partnership). Water and Sanitation Program. They rely on some of the Kalahari's plants that have also adapted to the dry conditions and either store water or have mechanisms to prevent excess water loss. However, no significant shift in prey was revealed. Molua EL and Lambi CM. Sightings of Lion in the Hluhluwe Umfolozi vary according to various factors. Our safari planners aren't available now. 2009). They are the most recent available information in the Aquastat database. Vassolo S. 2012. Since the 1980s, the government has followed policies of structural adjustment and privatisation lauded by international donors and development partners. Lions of the okavango delta. Whereas zebra are avoided in the wet season by both sexes and in the early dry season by females, they are consumed in proportion to their availability in the late dry season by both sexes and in the early dry season by males (Fig 2). The prey items detected were categorised similarly to the prey detected from the kills. Seasonal geographic information on waterholes was available and allowed us to calculate for each kill the distance to the nearest waterhole containing water (distance-to-water) using ArcView 3.2 nearest neighbour extensions (ESRI 2004). Imagine that thomas was asked to collect the water needed to supply only the cooking and The congo river is the world's second largest after amazon river in . PLoS ONE 8(2): 18, ST/TCD/5. Southern Africa Further, it revealed the opportunistic hunting behaviour of lions for prey as diverse as elephants and mice, with elephants taken mostly as juveniles at the end of the dry season during droughts. It provides fresh water for an entire community. African elephants that have become accustomed to the relentless cycles of drought in Etosha and map its water sources in their memories. This is reflected by the declines in certain rare herbivores when artificial water points allowed more common herbivores and resident predators access to areas previously too dry to support them [48], [50]. The local presence of evaporites in the Mamf basin leads to groundwaters of sodium-chloride composition (Mafany and Fantong 2006). If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it. https://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php/Hydrogeology_of_Cameroon. The Kenya Water Resources Management Authority shall have the following powers and functions: This brochure contains only modifications / changes, undertaken on the longitudinal Small antelopes contributed 1% to lion diet by relative biomass consumed. Seasonal differences in the distribution of prey consumed were tested using chi-square tests. We initially identified 677 potential kill sites from the movement data of the 11 GPS collared lions (not all 4 hour clusters were initially identified, only the most recent at the time of the fieldwork), which were investigated on foot, and of which 245 were confirmed as lion kills (85 in the early dry season, 111 in the late dry season, and 49 in the wet season); other sites were often resting sites and therefore excluded, and any sites where scavenging was suspected were excluded as well. _____ _____ abiotic factor environmental conditions biotic factor. Kill analysis revealed 14 different species being utilised by lions (Table 1). This section provides a summary of the geology of Cameroon. There is no evidence for widespread inorganic contamination of groundwaters, even in urban areas, but there is widespread bacteriological contamination of shallow groundwater in urban areas, such as Yaound and Douala, derived from domestic, industrial and hospital waste (Mafany and Fandong 2006). Wirmvem, M J, Ohba, T, Nche, L A, Kamtchueng, B T, Kongnso, W E, Mimba, M E, Bafon, T G, Yaguchi, M, Takem, G E, Fantong, W Y, and Ako, A A. Jane E. Hunt, Jacobss index of seasonal prey preference estimated from confirmed lion kills and faecal samples. We expected lion kill locations to be influenced by the trend in prey aggregation at artificial waterholes, resulting in seasonal variation in kill distribution; closer to waterholes in dry periods and further away in wet periods. Required fields are marked *. They however went dysfunctional and the community faced a serious water crisis. 2011. For females, some seasonal differences were detected due to the lower contribution of buffalo to female diet in the early dry season, compensated for by an increase in secondary prey consumption, mainly kudu and medium Bovidae. Three male and eight female lions from different coalitions and prides, instrumented with GPS Simplex and TELUS radio-collars (approximate weights: female 900 g, male 950 g; Televilt Positioning AB, Lindesberg, Sweden; see [23] for details), were studied. For more information on the datasets used to develop the map see the, Major surface water features of Cameroon. 3B). The largest is Lake Chad, of which 800 km2 (Little Chad phase) to 1 800 km2 (Normal Chad phase) are Cameroon territory, or 840% of the lake area, depending on the floods (Welcomme, 1979). Miniature waterfalls sprung up overnight cascading down rocky outcrops and bursting over gullies, only to disappear again at the first sign of sunshine. Equatorial conditions in the south create no flood peaks per season (i.e., Lobe and Nyong). WWF worked together with the communities to rehabilitate six stand taps in six communities, explains Njounan. Where is the Republic of Cameroon located in the world? The river has been exploited by local communities for transport, fish, and water for irrigation. The former French colony won independence in 1960, and the former British colony joined with it in 1961. The Project was supported by the Eppley Foundation, Panthera Foundation and the kind generosity of Rivington and Joan Winant, Adrian Gardiner and the Lilian Jean Kaplan Foundation. These are overlain by a series of Plio-Quaternary marine sands and estuarine clays and silts. Whiskers indicate the range between 10% and 90% percentiles. British Geological Survey. We do not have to go that far anymore says Madam Ngenge Ndo Lydie, a local restaurant owner. Tsavo. Understanding how predators make use of their environment and how actions such as augmenting water supply can alter their behavioural ecology, has implications for the long term sustainability of predator-prey systems. Additionally, giraffe were consumed in proportion to their availability in the early and late dry seasons by female lions, and contributed 18% of biomass to female lion diet. The river is an important fishing ground for local communities. 62% of elephants were taken in 2005, which was a drought year (rainfall: 330 mm), concurring with increasing relative contribution of elephant to lion kills in the late dry season and peak contribution in the wet season (due to many kills in November before the first rains). Kill investigation to study carnivore diet is biased towards larger species that are easier to detect using GPS data since predators will stay longer at a the kill of a larger prey animal, and using carcasses alone clearly underestimates the number of feeding events on small species, sometimes up to 50% [3], [4]. Prey moves between the islands and lions have to cross the water to follow. From buffalo to hippo and even adult elephant the there are prides that have adapted to preying on all. From just 26 in 1954, their numbers have swelled to over 2,500. The Dja and Kad drain southeastward into the Congo River. Zebra and Suidae showed a peak in contribution to female lion diet in the late dry season (Fig. Some - eg Mamf - contain evaporites. Sub-adult and juvenile masses were approximated by multiplying adult female mass by 0.7 and 0.3 respectively [1]. An improved water source over this period for resources leads to infanticide- the practice of killing others! Laboratoire de Biomtrie et Biologie Evolutive, CNRS UMR 5558, Universit Claude Bernard - Lyon 1, Bt Gregor Mendel, Villeurbanne, France, Affiliation: Mzima springs. Map developed from World Wildlife Fund HydroSHEDS; Digital Chart of the World drainage; and FAO Inland Water Bodies. Cameroon has seen relatively high political and social stability since independence, with the same president since 1982. It has spectacular spear-like horns that even lion treat with respect. Alker M. 2008. Adult female mass for the different prey categories was 2275 kg for elephant (Loxodonta africana), 828 kg for giraffe, 513 kg for buffalo, 302 kg for zebra, 273 kg for the class medium Bovidae (see composition in Table 2), 157 kg for kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), 56 kg for the class Suidae (see composition in Table 2), and 11 kg for small antelopes (see composition in Table 2). In recent years, the former National Water Supply Company of Cameroon (SNEC: Socit Nationale des Eaux du Cameroun) was privatised to create the national water utility company, Cameroon Water Utilities Corporation (CAMWATER), which has responsibility for public water supplies in urban areas. It is covered by 6 of the 8 main climatic units encountered in Cameroon (Kpoumi 2015) which are: (1) altitudinal tropical climate of the Adamawa; (2) mountainous tropical climate of the West;. Temperatures vary drastically in the Kalahari, going below zero on winter nights and reaching as high as 40 degrees Celsius during summer days. The deeper Cretaceous sandstones also form an important aquifer, hydraulically separated from the overlying Plio-Quaternary by mudstones. It was not possible to quantify biomass rigorously from faecal samples, as prey age and sex were not discernible from hair remains. We used data from 74 faecal samples. In the north, the Bnou River flows north and west into the Niger. Has its source in the water quality in Cameroon, the Lion Fund! In terms of quantity, it is the second potential in. Then-Gov. The plateau areas show distinct wet and dry seasons, with lower rainfall than the coastal region. The source of the river is in the mountainous highlands of East African rift before it eventually drains into the Atlantic Ocean. Many springs occur. Hence, buffalo are likely to have a crucial influence on the spatial and behavioural ecology of lions in the Hwange ecosystem in all seasons. It was in Etosha that a study proved that elephant can communicate using infrasonic sounds; they literally bounce these off a thermal inversion layer in the atmosphere. View our recommended safaris for inspiration and get ready to plan your dream safari, Contact us or fill out an enquiry form and one of our travel experts will help you tailor make your perfect safari, Enjoy an authentic African experience, with peace of mind, Namibia The sex and age classes of the prey found were recorded when possible and age class was determined using lower jawbone tooth wear against known age collections held by the wildlife authority. Copper isn't Zambia's only rich natural resource. In semi-arid ecosystems, herbivore distribution is generally more homogeneous in the wet season, when surface water is abundant, than in the dry season when only permanent sources remain. 1). The combined thickness of laterite and weathered basement is usually between 8 and 20 m (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Water sources are also considered crucial in lion habitat selection in the Serengeti [47] and thought to act as passive traps for ungulates in the Kruger ecosystem [5], [48]. The upland areas have a mild climate with high rainfall. Faecal data, mainly representative of female diet, suggest that kudu (revealed as the second main prey for females from kill data) may be an equally important prey species for female lions and that this species may be under-represented by kill data. changing relative selection of prey species between seasons, is not characteristic of the Hwange lion population at least for the primary prey. Groundwater from volcanic aquifers is widely used by the bottled water industry. There was no seasonal difference in diet composition for male lions (2early dry-late dry=4.13, df=7, p=0.76; 2early dry-wet=8.63, df=7, p=0.28; 2late dry-wet=7.85, df=7, p=0.35). I travelled throughout Cameroon in February and March 2020 with colleagues from Wildlife Conservation Society and the Elephant Crisis Fund to gain a better understanding of the conservation landscape in . This is consistent with previous findings suggesting that female lion home range size was constrained by the abundance of kudu in the early dry season [40]. All necessary permits were obtained for the described field study from the appropriate agency (Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority, 23(1) (c) (ii) 01/20052007). More information on the derivation and interpretation of these statistics can be seen on the FAO Aquastat website. Karoo In: Groundwater quality in Africa, ed. Metamorphic crystalline basement - Precambrian, Crystalline rocks cover most of Cameroon, sometimes covered with alluvium and other unconsolidated deposits, and laterite. They however went dysfunctional and the community faced a serious water crisis. This page was last modified on 10 November 2022, at 14:15. Water Resources in Cameroon This is the sum of renewable groundwater and renewable surface water resources (both internal and external) Renewable Water Resources 283 billion m/year Total Renewable Water Resources (2017) Water Resources per Capita 11,769 m/person/year Renewable Water per Inhabitant (2017) Water Dependency 4 % The distance between 215 lion kills and the nearest water source was analyzed using generalized linear models. Etosha Seasonal variation in the relative contribution by different prey species to lion kills, for males (M) and females (F), distinguishing age class proportions. Nonetheless, kill investigations revealed that elephant is an important prey species, contributing 23% and 20% of biomass to male and female lion diet respectively. Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Department of Zoology, Oxford University, Tubney House, Abingdon, United Kingdom, The upper Quaternary-Pliocene aquifer includes two units, which are thought to be connected: an unconfined/phreatic aquifer, formed of sand, which is up to 50 m thick, which is vulnerable to contamination and known to have high nitrate concentrations linked to agricultural and sewage contamination; and a confined, artesian Pliocene aquifer, between 250 and 400 m depth, with more mineralised water. Seasonal differences in the preference of prey were tested using Friedman rank sum tests. Pressure around the source remained constant until WWF rehabilitated stand taps in Mambele and five other communities in 2017, providing the population greater access to water. This index minimises the biases associated with small sample size (prey proportions below 10%), rare food items and non-linearity in proportional use over time [6]. The dominant land cover in the northern lowland region is savanna scrub and grass. Cameroons location on the atlantic coast in central africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. Climate, Hydrology and Water Resources in Cameroon. Nasilele mubita says her family was always complaining of diarrhoea as they shared a water source. Boreholes are typically between 40 and 200 m deep. Bundesanstalt fr Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR). Surface water. In northeast Cameroon, the Lake Chad basin aquifer is shared with neighbouring countries. Groundwater from volcanic aquifers is widely used by the bottled water industry. They fill small basins at the base of trees or or in natural depressions in the landscape with rainwater or snow melt. Artificial waterholes act as powerful hubs of predation activity throughout the year.
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