It also differs from other adaptive behavior scales because it is administered as a test directly to the individual and, as such, does not measure typical performance in real life. Haring (1992) found this to be an advantage in terms of its excellent reliability but noted that there were concerns about validity. Standardization is the process of . The Comprehensive Test of Adaptive Behavior (CTABAdams & Hartleben, 1984) has been described as fairly efficient and inexpensive, with excellent reliability, solid validity, and adequate norms (Reschly, 1990). Furthermore, issues are raised about the degree to which existing instruments are able to take into account the cultural context in assessing an individual's adaptive behavior. Possibly the most thoroughly researched and well understood instrument to assess both prosocial and problem behavior among children generally is the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist (CBCsee Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1978). Behavior identification supporting assessment The dimensions of adaptive behavior and social skills in the Gresham and Elliott model are surprisingly similar to the 10 adaptive skill areas in the 1992 AAMR definition of mental retardation. Social Skills Dimension of Social Competence. For example, assessments are used during classroom instruction to measure students' learning related to the academic content, and different assessments are used to measure students' overall cognitive, physical, or social . For example, difficulties can develop in mastering basic functional skills (such as talking, walking, or toileting), in learning academic skills and concepts, or in making social and vocational adjustments. The Maladaptive Behavior domain provides a brief assessment of problem behaviors. A major reason why proper assessment of the social domain of adaptive behavior can be a challenge for eligibility examiners is that the limitations in social functioning in individuals with mild mental retardation are often difficult to quantify with available assessment methods. Mental Retardation: Determining Eligibility for Social Security Benefits. Dr. Stephen Smagula, (Assistant Professor of Psychiatry), did his doctoral work in epidemiology, followed by postdoctoral training in geriatric psychiatry and sleep research. It requires an individual to demonstrate adaptive skills, rather than using a third-party informant or self-report to gather information on typical behavior. Finally, as this chapter is being written, the World Health Organization (WHO) has completed development of ICIDH-2, the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (World Health Organization, 2000; see also Post et al., 1999), a functionally based nomenclature. The adaptive behavior construct has both typical performance and maximum performance elements, a characteristic that complicates measurement operations. The ABS-S was standardized on population samples of people with and without mental retardation. Generally, adaptive behavior assessment involves obtaining information from parents, legal primary caregivers, or even teachers about a child with a learning disability to determine their strengths and weaknesses and how well they can perform independently at home, school, and in the community. In the recent Manual of Diagnosis and Professional Practice in Mental Retardation (Jacobson & Mulick, 1996), Division 33 of the American Psychological Association put forth a definition of mental retardation that emphasizes significant limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior. Some of these scales were developed to serve only one of these purposes; however, several have attempted to include both the breadth required for diagnosis and the depth required for clinical use. Adaptive Behavior Assessment Examples. The purpose of doing a behavioral assessment is to understand and to explain how behavior can affect a child or an individual depending on the environment. As social cognition has matured as a research discipline, researchers have developed methodologies for assessing social-cognitive processes and have demonstrated the usefulness of these methodologies for detecting the limitations that individuals with mild mental retardation exhibit in their ability to adapt to changing social situations. Norms on children having no disability are available from birth to 18 years, 11 months, based on a standardization sample of 3,000 cases that were stratified by age, gender, ethnicity, parental education, geographic region, and community size consistent with U.S. census data. Often, there may be no substitute for assistance by a translator familiar with the informant's dialect, even for examiners who are fluent in the informant's primary language. ABLE Adaptive Behavior Skills Checklist Adaptive behavior is a developmentally determined set of coping skills. In the definitions that imply a multifactor construct, deficits in adaptive behavior must be specified in a certain number of areas/domains. It is crucial that people conducting or interpreting adaptive assessments take these problems into account. However, the simplicity and lack of reliability or validity of many such procedures render them less useful than more complex measures administered professionally. In an unstructured interview, the clinician applies personal, experience-based clinical norms to the adaptive behavior assessment. Meyers et al. The Adaptive Behavior Assessment System (ABAS-2) is a behavior rating scale that gives a complete assessment of adaptive skills across the lifespan (Harrison & Oakland, 2000). (1999), Jacobson and Mulick (1996), Spector (1999), Hill (1999), Test Critiques, test reviews in the Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, and the Mental Measurements Yearbooks for more detailed psychometric information about these and other measures. Individuals with mental retardation often demonstrate difficulties at the most basic level of recognizing specific types of social cues (e.g., recognizing a person's emotional state on the basis of his or her facial expression) (Adams & Markham, 1991; Gumpel & Wilson, 1996; Harris, 1977; Hobson et al., 1989). Standard score scales are preferred for these comparisons. Typically these measures are structured in terms of factors, domains, and subdomains or scales. 7-8). A relatively wide age range must be represented. In this section, we discuss a variety of psychometric features of adaptive behavior scales that have implications for decision making about mental retardation. Although the assessment of intellectual functioning has a longer history (e.g., first standardized test was developed in 1905) than the measurement of adaptive behavior, standardized tests of adaptive behavior have progressed significantly since the first such scale was published (Vineland Social Maturity Scale, Doll, 1936).The first version of the Vineland instrument consisted of items . Adaptive behavior is defined as the set of skills that individuals should be able to perform at a certain age. The highest level of requirement is Class C, which means that a person has specific training and experience in psychometric assessment and meets other criteria typically consistent with those in the 1985 and more recent Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing. In fact, as noted above, in the construction of adaptive behavior scales, such oversampling is typically avoided. The value of such instruments will depend on careful decisions about instrument choice, score interpretation, and consideration of other information that bears on adaptive status. A high level of training is necessary in order to capture and distinguish the level, quality, and pattern of adaptive behavior displayed by a given subject, as viewed by the eyes of the respondent (parent, teacher, or caregiver). Each of the four adaptive behavior measures included in the table collects or assesses information regarding developmental status or performance in the areas of motor development, activities of daily living, communication, social functioning, and personal functioning. Indeed, by the late 1970s, the number of available adaptive behavior measures, largely interview or observational in format, had burgeoned, including checklists pertaining to vocational behaviors (Walls & Werner, 1977). This means that within any one subscale of an adaptive behavior scale, for example, there may be only one or two items typical of performance for a 10-year-old. In balancing these factors, item density, that is, the inclusion of multiple items reflecting age-typical performance at a range of ages, must be maintained at a fairly uniform level. With regard to identifying decision-making criteria, Division 33 presents the only definition that employs a statistical cutoff based on standard norms. In particular, criticism has focused on the inadequacy of existing techniques for measuring the social domain of adaptive behavior (MacMillan et al., in press). Measures of behavioral functioning or responsiveness of children younger than 36 months have not been strengths of many adaptive behavior measures. Chapter 4, The Role of Adaptive Behavior Assessment, Mental Retardation: Determining Eligibility for Social Security Benefits. The information obtained from this type of evaluation can clarify the nature and extent of the limitations those individuals with mild mental retardation experience in adapting their behavior to meet the social demands and expectations of the school, workplace, and recreational and residential settings. Jacobson & C.S. The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABSSparrow et al., 1984a) have their conceptual roots in the Vineland Social Maturity Scale (Doll, 1936b), although overlap between the original and the new scales is minimal (Kamphaus, 1987b). Thus, social-cognitive assessment increases the likelihood of making accurate diagnostic and disability determination decisions by increasing the pool of information available to an examiner regarding an individual's functional limitations, while simultaneously reducing the risk of false positive decisions. Although developed for school-age children, this scale may hold promise for adapted use with adults in work settings. How it works: Someone who knows the child well fills out a questionnaire or answers questions about your child. For the Scales of Independent Behavior-R (Bruininks et al., 1996), the norming sample included 2,182 people ages 3 years 11 months to 90 years, with a sampling frame based on the general population of the United States stratified for gender, race, Hispanic origin, occupational status, occupational level, geographic region, and community size. Social skills: interpersonal skills . AAMR no longer differentiates, either qualitatively or quantitatively, differences in intellectual or adaptive functioning of individuals with mild, moderate, severe, and profound mental retardation. Average reliability coefficients of the adaptive skill areas across age groups range from .86 to .97, with the majority above .90 and corrected reliability coefficients of individuals with clinical diagnoses above .98. In recent years, existing operational definitions of adaptive behavior and techniques for measuring adaptive behavior have been criticized as being inadequate for determining the presence of significant limitations in individuals with mild mental retardation. The . It consisted of 3,000 children ages birth through 18 years 11 months of age, including 99 children in special or gifted education among the 2,500 who were of school age. The CBC differentiates between internalizing (e.g., withdrawal, diminished interests, depressive affect) and externalizing (e.g., aggression against peers or adults, property destruction) behavior problems that may be consistent with a mental disorder (see also Borthwick-Duffy et al., 1997; Fidler et al., 2000; Hodapp et al., 1997). They have provided valuable information that has informed decision making about interventions to improve the social functioning of individuals with mental retardation. It is important to note that the Division 33 definition places equal importance on the constructs intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior. How it works: Someone who knows the child well fills out a questionnaire or answers questions about him. This table is a useful means to summarize and illustrate the detailed description of adaptive functioning that meets listing criteria, which are required to establish eligibility for SSI and DI. Social perception refers to an individual's ability to interpret or read relevant social messages from others (Maheady et al., 1984). In infancy and early childhood: sensorimotor development, communication skills, self-help skills, socialization, and interaction with others; In childhood and early adolescence: application of basic academic skills in daily life activities, application of appropriate reasoning and judgment in mastery of the environment, and social skillsparticipation in group activities and interpersonal relations; and. For example, adaptive behavior is defined in terms of effectively coping with common life demands and the ability to meet the standards of personal independence for a particular age group with a specific sociocultural background. Nevertheless, there is merit to the idea of considering these subtle indicators of social competence, i.e., vulnerability, gullibility, and credulity, as important indicators of adaptive behavior in people with mild cognitive impairments. Professionals voiced early caution about diagnosing mental retardation solely through the use of intelligence testing, especially in the absence of fuller information about the adaptation of the individual. If there is actually one underlying domain that causes behaviors in all different conceptual domains, and there is relatively little unique variance found in each domain, then a total score with a single cutoff point could reliably distinguish those with and without significant limitations. Noncomparability of items may alter norms due to item wording that requires a higher developmental level of performance in the translated item. However, depending on the functional domain and the measure, many people with a diagnosis of mild mental retardation do not have adaptive delays or limitations to this degree. Another method is to ask a third-party respondent (e.g., a parent or teacher) either very general questions about communication skills, a more specific question about telephone use, or a direct question like Does Edouard find a number by looking it up in a telephone book? As a general rule, skills can be measured directly with greater accuracy, reliability, and validity than performance. No one instrument produced a factor structure that included all of the domains that were identified by the American Association on Mental Retardation (1992). Reliability is good. For example, an item may tap skills associated only with childhood (e.g., performing a specific activity or completing a task with adult assistance in an age-typical manner) or with adulthood (e.g., menstrual care for an adult or adolescent woman). (1991) and Widaman and McGrew (1996) concluded that evidence supported a hierarchical model with four distinct domains: (1) motor or physical competence; (2) independent living skills, daily living skills, or practical intelligence; (3) cognitive competence, communication, or conceptual intelligence; and (4) social competence or social intelligence. For example, the Test of Social Inference (TSIde Jung et al., 1973) employs the technique of presenting an individual with mild mental retardation with illustrations of common social situations and asking him or her, for each illustration, to tell the examiner what the picture is about. The Independent Living Scales (ILSLoeb, 1996) were designed to assess the degree to which older adults are capable of caring for themselves (i.e., functional competence). Many of the parents of children suspected of meeting criteria for mild mental retardation may themselves experience cognitive difficulties and are relatively nonverbal (Ramey et al., 1996), making semi- or unstructured interviews much more difficult to conduct in a standardized manner. This is perfect for any special education, life skills, or autism or ABA classroom. Here are some examples of activities early childhood teachers can implement to develop motor skills. - To improve children's physical fitness and motor . Notably, adaptive behaviors include grooming . Traditional measures of achievement and intellectual functioning are examples of maximum performance tests. Since the adaptive behaviors that need to be assessed are those found in the context of a broad range of everyday living situations displayed across a wide variety of settings, an assessment of adaptive functioning by direct observation is usually not practical. Interview methods recommended for different measures vary from high to low structure. Chapter 4, The Role of Adaptive Behavior Assessment. In adolescence and adult life: vocational and social responsibilities. Comprehensive adaptive behavior measures are those that assess adaptive behavior through multiple items in multiple domains of functioning. Retaining all features that made the second edition the preferred instrument for evaluating adaptive behavior, the ABAS-3 is even easier to administer and score. SOURCE: Greenspan and Driscoll (1997). For example, an individual with mild mental retardation may be familiar with the routines and may benefit from the supports that staff provide in the supervised apartment program in which he lives. Greenspan (1999) also has argued for many years that the presence of maladaptive behavior, or mental illness, is irrelevant for the purpose of diagnosing of mental retardation. Their work in this area sparked broadened interest in measurement of adaptive behavior among practitioners serving people with mental retardation (Doll, 1927; Kuhlman, 1920; Porteus, 1921; Scheerenberger, 1983). Response options such as never, sometimes, and always or Likert-type response formats using a five- or seven-point continuum with anchor statements like very good, good, acceptable, poor, and very poor are open to a variety of response sets. . Adaptive behavior is behavior that is positive and functional to the individual. It is reported to be appropriate for ages 5-22, yet it may not have a sufficient ceiling to discriminate performance levels among children above age 14 (Evans & Bradley-Johnson, 1988). It is clear that different scales place different levels of emphasis on different adaptive behavior domains. Adaptive Functioning Adaptive functioning is affected by three basic skill sets: Conceptual This includes reading, numbers, money, time, and communication skills. Interpretation of ABAS-II Results Adaptive Behavior Composite Scores The General Adaptive Composite score (GAC) summarizes performance across all skill areas excluding Work. Thus, adaptive behavior scales have particular relevance in application with preschoolers and with teens, who are often participants in Supplemental Security Income (SSI) determinations or redeterminations. There is evidence that the ABI has adequate construct, content, and criterion-related validity, as well as internal reliability, but no data were provided on interrater reliability. Often, these limitations take the form of poor judgment or social rule violations, rather than markedly maladaptive behavior (Greenspan & Granfield, 1992). . The AAMR definition is accompanied by five major principles for the assessment and understanding of adaptive behavior: 1. Kamphaus (1987b) reported that the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales-Survey Form (Sparrow et al., 1984a) and the Scales of Independent Behavior (Bruininks et al., 1984) had adequate standardization samples. The committee therefore, makes two major recommendations to SSA: Recommendation: Standardized adaptive behavior instruments should be used to determine limitations in adaptive functioning. Floor and ceiling effects are also evident as developmental range effects.
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